In order to truly understand a country’s literary history it is necessary to start from its earliest stages. In the case of Spain, that starting point is often considered to be the medieval epic, Poema (Cantar) de Mio Cid, which is the first extensive verse text written in Spanish.

It seems as though Medieval literature is often brushed to the side when compared to the outstanding masterpieces in both visual and literary arts that came during the Renaissance and the following periods, such as the Golden Age of Spain. However, in order to understand and truly value any other period of writing we must look to the Middle Ages when each Romance country came into its own in terms of literature and art. The Middle Ages are especially important for the Romance countries because this period exemplifies the divisions in culture and art that began to form after the fall of the Roman empire. In terms of Spanish Medieval writing, Poema de Mio Cid stands out as a key piece of literature that reflects the society of the time. This influential, infamous work is a bit of a mystery in the fact that we do not have a confirmed author or date of the work, both of these issues becoming topics for debate and argument among historians. The work reflects Spanish history of the time, from the way in which wealth is represented to the conflicts between Christians and Muslims at the time. The Poema is categorized as an epic, which highlights external influences. This introduction will discuss the speculation around the date and author of the work, the characteristics of Medieval art, the genre of the Spanish epic, and finally the historical context regarding Christian and Islamic conflict.

In the present, our society cannot stand the idea of not knowing the author behind a work. We can see this perfectly with the example of the italian author, Elena Ferrante. Readers do not know her true name or  identity, and reporters continuously go to great lengths to discover the true identity of this author. However, this was not the case in the Middle Ages in Spain. The Poema de Mio Cid is a clear example of this. Colin Smith discusses this in his introduction to his own translation of the epic by writing, “There are many anonymous and unattributable artistic products of the Middle Ages, when the individual hardly thought of asserting his personality within the tradition and rarely claimed that his earthly fame or name had a right to survive” (Poema de Mio Cid xxxiv). This quote helps distinguish the Middle Ages from the time we live in now, highlighting the fact that at the time that this work was written there was no emphasis on the importance of the individual. However, the fact that there is no name written on the surviving manuscript does not stop historians from speculating possible authors and even simply possible characteristics that the author may possess. For example, the Spanish Medievalist Ramón Menéndez Pidal, who brought the Poema back into the spotlight in the 19th century, believes that that a man named Per Abbat is the true author of the work (Poema de Mio Cid xxxiv). This man was a Castilian lawyer during the 13th century who showed interest in the Cid. Others, such as Colin Smith, simply attempt to guess some of the attributes that the author may hold such as being a lawyer due to the specific legal aspects written about in the Poema, and someone who had access to historical texts. Perhaps, part of the intrigue of this infamous epic comes from the fact that we may never be able to confidently attach an author’s name to this work, simply showing that when it comes to analyzing medieval texts the author does not need to play a large role.

Another important aspect of the text that cannot be confidently confirmed from the only surviving manuscript is the date. Pidal estimates that the work was written in 1140, putting it only a several years after the death of the historical figure of the Cid. Peter Such and John Hodgkinson write in their book regarding the text, “The only existing manuscript of the work shows the date ‘era de mill ee .cc xlv anos’, which led historians to believe that the text can be dated to A.D. 1207” (Such and Hodgkinson 1). However, some historians, such as Pidal himself, believe that there is a gap between cc which would provide room for an extra c which would put the publishing date at 1307 (Such and Hodkinson 1). The most widely accepted time frame for this work is the thirteenth century, so for the purpose of this analysis we will use this as the historical framework for this piece.

Given this time period, it is crucial to understand what characterized literature and art during this part of European, and more specifically Spanish, history. The Middle Ages presented both visual and literary art that was very two-dimensional. In terms of visual art, figures were scaled on their importance during the period rather than on the actual dimensions of the human body, which we see in the Renaissance (Such and Hodkinson 19). Similarly, literary art of the time also saw it’s characters being flat, without much depth into their thoughts, feelings, and flaws. Such and Hodgkinson write in their introduction to the piece, “The poet’s technique was very similar to that of the visual artist. He was not interested in ‘psychological’ depth or expression of subjective emotions” (Such and Hodkinson 20). This quote demonstrates the fact that the Poema does not attempt to provide dynamic characters, following the pattern of the Middle Ages, which is important to understand when analyzing the text because it clarifies that the text does not require it’s readers to ponder the feelings and emotions of the characters, but rather, for the most part to simply read it for it in a more superficial way than texts that came after it.

This work has been categorized as a Spanish epic, depicting the life of the famous Spanish hero, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar. Although today we can considered Rodrigo as one of the most famous heroes in Spanish history, many historians attribute his fame to the Poema de Mio Cid. The fact that this work is considered an epic is an important indicator of Spanish history and society at the time. Epic’s originated in France, which is home to some of the most famous epics such as Chanson de Roland. The fact that this poem is considered an epic is important because it shows the French influence on Spanish society at the time. Many French people began migrating to Spain on a religious pilgrimage to the tomb of St. James in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, bringing with them their French culture, including art and literature (The Making of the Poema 13). In fact, the importance of this French pilgrimage is clear given that it is only Spain, of the Romance countries, that has produced any type of epic. Colin Smith writes of this, stating, “ Among the Romance countries other than France, only Spain (and only Castile among the Hispanic states, so far as we can tell from surviving evidence) had a vernacular epic literature of any strength” (Poema de Mio Cid xv). Despite the fact that the epic originated in France, historians have tried to emphasize the differences between Spanish and French epics. Smith writes of one example that Pidal brought to attention, which was that Spanish epics seemed to be more historically accurate in comparison to their French counterparts, mainly due to the time between the historical events and the writing of the epic. Not only does the epic show French influence on Spain, but it also has linguistic meaning as well. Matthew Bailey writes about the importance of the Spanish epic in terms of linguistic history. He writes, “The late- thirteenth-century historians in the employ of Alfonso X incorporated the epic narratives into their official history of Spain. In doing so, they abandoned the Latin of earlier histories and initiated the vernacular prose tradition in Castilian, the language of the epic (Bailey 254). This quote shows the grand linguistic affect the epic had on Spanish history, it began the shift from Latin to early Spanish.

In order to further understand the historical context of this text, it is necessary to discuss the conflict between the Christians and Muslims during this time period in Spain. Islamic soldiers from Northern Africa first invaded Spain in the eighth century, taking over much of the southern portion of the country. Throughout the following centuries, leading up to the fall of the Caliphate in Cordoba in the eleventh century, there was a slow moving expansion of Christianity toward the south. During this time of Islamic presence in the Peninsula, great progress was made in terms of education, economy, and trade. Of course, for the context of this paper I want to focus on what Islamic rule brought to Spain in terms of art and literature.  “Greek science was supplemented by Persian astronomy and Hindu mathematics, again by way of translations made at Baghdad. All of these works were accompanied by commentaries, expositions, and corrections written by Muslim scholars in the East. Alongside this erudite literature was the world of traditional Arabic poetry whose themes celebrated war, the hunt, nature, wine, and love” (Reilly 6). It is important to recognize the advancements and influences that were brought to Spain during the Middle Ages because it allows readers to have a deeper understanding of the historical context of this Castilian epic. It is interesting to see that Arabic poetry also focused on similar themes such as war and the hunt that is also reflected in this epic, perhaps demonstrating the Arabic influence experienced by the writer of this work. It is also important to understand the history of the conflict between Christians and Muslims in the Peninsula leading up to the time of this work to be able to recognize why the author includes this conflict in the epic. It is only by this conflict, that Rodrigo, the Cid, is able to gain prominence through his valiance in these battles.

When analyzing any text is is important to have a strong foundational understanding of the foundational aspects that play a role in it’s creation. From the author, time period, and artistic movement each of these pieces is crucial in how the text was created. Through this introduction, I hope to have brought light to a few key aspects that influenced the author of the epic, but also influence how we should interpret the text in the present day.

Featured Text

*Note that given that I selected the entirety of the first part of the Poema for my project, I will not include the full 30 pages here. Below is a selection of 250 words, which will be used for my recording.

De los sos ojos tan fuertemientre lorando
tornava la cabeça e estávalos catando.
Vio puertas abiertas e uços sin cannados,
alcándaras vazías sin pielles e sin mantos
e sin falcones & sin adtores mudados.
Sospiró Mío Çid ca mucho avíe grandes cuidados.
Ffabló Mío Çid bien & tan mesurado:
«¡Grado a tí, Sennor, Padre que estás en alto!
¡Esto me an buelto míos enemigos malos!»

Allí pienssan de aguijar, allí sueltan las rriendas.
A la exida de Bivar ovieron la corneja diestra
e entrando a Burgos oviéronla siniestra.
Meçió Mío Çid los ombros e engrameó la tiesta:
«¡Albriçia, Álbar Ffánnez, ca echados somos de tierra!»

Mío Çid Ruy Díaz por Burgos entrava,
en su conpanna LX pendones.
Exíenlo ver mugieres e varones,
burgeses & burgesas por las finiestras son,
plorando de los ojos tanto avíen el dolor.
De las sus bocas todos dizían una rrazón:
«¡Dios, qué buen vassalo! ¡Si oviesse buen sennor!»

Conbidarle íen de grado mas ninguno non osava;
el rrey don Alfonsso tanto avíe la grand sanna,
antes de la noche en Burgos dél entró su carta
con grand rrecabdo e fuertemientre sellada,
que a Mío Çid Ruy Díaz que nadi no l’ diessen posada,
e aquel que ge la diesse sopiesse vera palabra

Modern Spanish

Con los ojos anegados tan fuertemente en llanto
Hacia atrás vuelva la vista ya quedaba contemplándolos.
Y vio las puertas abiertas y postigos sin candados;
están vacías las perchas, sin las pieles ni los mantos;
también faltan los halcones y los azores mudados.
Y suspira Mío Cid por tantas penas cuitado.
Y habló luego, como siempre, tan justo y tan mesurado:
<<¡Loado seas, Señor, Padre que estás en lo alto!
Los malditos enemigos me han traído este quebranto.>>

Ya aguijan a los caballos y ya les sueltan las riendas.
En saliendo de Vivar ven la corneja a la diestra,
Mientras que al entrar en Burgos la llevaban a su izquierda. El Cid encoge los hombros y sacude la cabeza:
<<¡Albricas, buen Alvar Fáñez, nos echan de nuestra tierra;
Pero con honra más alta hemos de volver a ella!>>

Mío Cid Ruy Díaz en Burgos entró,
Sesenta pendones lleva alrededor;
salían a verle mujer y varón
Y en cada ventana se escucha un clamor,
Los ojos llorando cuentan su dolor
De todas sus bocas sale un razón:
<<¡Dios, que buen vasallo, con un buen señor!>>

Con gusto le hospedarian, pero ninguno lo asaba:
temían al rey Alfonso, que al Cid tiene mucha saña.
Antes de caer la noche, a Burgos llega una carta
Con órdenes muy severas y fuertemente sellada:
A Ruy Diaz, Mio Cid, que nadie le de posada;
Y si alguno se atreviese, el rey le da su palabra
de que perderá sus bienes y los ojos de la cara,
Y, además, ya no podría salvar el cuerpo y el alma.

English:

He turned and looked upon them, and he wept very sore
As he saw the yawning gateway and the hasps wrenched off the door,
And the pegs whereon no mantle nor coat of vair there hung.
There perched no moulting goshawk, and there no falcon swung.
My lord the Cid sighed deeply such grief was in his heart
And he spake well and wisely: “Oh Thou, in Heaven that art
Our Father and our Master, now I give thanks to Thee.
Of their wickedness my foemen have done this thing to me.”

II Then they shook out the bridle rein further to ride afar.
They had the crow on their right hand as they issued from Bivar;
And as they entered Burgos upon their left it sped.
And the Cid shrugged his shoulders, and the Cid shook his head:
“Good tidings Alvar Fanez We are banished from our weal,
But on a day with honor shall we come unto Castile.”

III Roy Diaz entered Burgos with sixty pennons strong,
And forth to look upon him did the men and women throng.
And with their wives the townsmen at the windows stood hard by,
And they wept in lamentation, their grief was risen so high.
As with one mouth, together they spake with one accord:
“God, what a noble vassal, an he had a worthy lord.

IV Fain had they made him welcome, but none dared do the thing
For fear of Don Alfonso, and the fury of the King.
His mandate unto Burgos came ere tile evening fell.
With utmost care they brought it, and it was sealed well
‘That no man to Roy Diaz give shelter now, take heed
And if one give him shelter, let him know in very deed

He shall lose his whole possession, nay! the eyes within his head
Nor shall his soul and body be found in better stead.’

Phonetic analysis

INTER [ɪn.tɛr] > entre [en.tɾe]

The stressed vowel is the short vowel ǐ. It comes from the penultimate ǐn, with the light vowel ǐ being stressed.

1. There is syncope of the unstressed vowel ĕ
   INTER [ɪn.tɛr] > INTR [ɪn.tr]

2. Stressed /ǐ / > /e/ following the regular evolution of the short ǐ, becoming the high mid front /e/
   INTR /Intr/ > entr /entr/

3. Epenthesis of word final e to support pronunciation of the three-consonant cluster
   entr /entr/ > /entre/

CINGĔRE [kɪn.gɛ.re] > Çinxer [tsinxer]> ceñir [se.ɲiɾ]

The stressed vowel is the antepenultimate ǐ. It comes from the antepenultimate cǐn, given that the penultimate syllable is free the vowel ĕ is not heavy, making the antepenultimate blocked syllable the stressed one.

1. The word initial voiceless velar /k/ plus front vowel becomes the voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/ due to palatalization and is represented by <ç>
   CINGĔRE /kindʒɛr/ > ÇINGĔRE /tsiɪn.gɛ.re]

2. Loss of word final e in Spanish
Çingere /tsin.gɛ.re] > Çinger /tsin.gɛ.r]

3. In the process of palatalization /g/ plus front vowel results in /j/
Çinger /tsin.gɛ.r] > Çinger /tsin.jɛ.r]

4. The nasal consonant /n/ plus /j/ creates /nj/ which can result in two outcomes: [ɲ] and [x].  both of which we see in the original text and the modern reflection. In old Spanish
Çinger /tsin.jɛ.r] > Çinxer /tsi.xɛ.r]
In modern Spanish we see that the palatal consonant /ɲ/ arises when a yod comes after the nasal consonant /n/.
Çinxer /tsi.xɛ.r] > Çiñer /tsi.xɛ.r]

5. The stressed /ǐ / > /e/ following the regular evolution of the short ǐ, becoming the high mid front /e/
Çiñer /tsi. ɲɛ.r] > Çeñer /tse. ɲɛ.r]

6.  Short ĕ in latin becomes /ɛ/ in proto romance and then dypthongizes in Spanish to become /je/ , however because of the existing yod from pallatalization it is an exemption became the modern Spanish reflex is /i/
Çeñer /tse. ɲɛ.r] > Çeñer /tse. ɲi.r]

7. There is loss of the allophonic voicing distinction so [ts] neutralize to the voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/ which then deaffricates, ending up as the fricative alveolar consonant /s/.  It is important to note that however, in In certain regional varieties of Spanish at the stage where [ts] was an allophone reducing to /ts/, this sound was further front to the Fricative interdental voiceless /Ɵ/. This leads to /ts/ disassimilating to continue to be a different phoneme from all the other ones whose places of articulation are too close together. In this case we have the primary evolution to /s/ .           Çeñer /tse. ɲɛ.r] > Çeñer /se. ɲi.r]

SPATHA [spa.tʰa] > espada / [esˈpaða]

The stressed vowel is the penultimate /a/, given that we cannot distinguish from the long and short vowel quanity we rely on the fact that this word has only two syllables, and the ultimate syllable is not the stressed, then we know the penultimate spa is the stressed syllable.

1. Epenthesis of the prosthetic vowel /e/
   SPATHA [spa.tʰa] > espatha [espa.tʰa]

2. Loss of the grapheme h due to its lack of pronunciation in Popular Latin.
espatha /ɛspatʰa/ > espata /espata/

3. Lenition of intervocalic consonant t, voiceless stopped becomes fricative /ð/
espata /ɛspata/ > espada /espaða/

MULIER /mu.li.er/ or MULIERES /mu.li.er.es/  > muglier /mũʒɛɾ /> mujer /muxeɾ/

In the form of the noun MULIER he stressed vowel is the penultimate Ū, given the two syllables of the word and its blocked position. However, it is important to note the stress shift that we see in the modern reflex from the penultimate <mu> to the ultimate <jer>. This exception can be explained by the fact that actually the word mujer comes from the genitive form MULIERIS, with the stress in the penultimate <lie> .

1. /s/ > zero in word-final position
   MULIERES /mu.li.er.es/ > MULIERE /mu.li.er.e/

2. Loss of word final e in Spanish
MULIERE /mu.li.er.e/ > Mulier /mulier/

3. The vowel hiatus was not preferred in Popular Latin pronunciation so in order to resolve this issue, the first vowel /i/ becomes a glide /j/, resulting in a yod
Mulier /mulier/ > Mulier /muljer/

4.The intervocalic /l/ is followed by a front vowel that becomes a yod, it becomes the lateral palatal [ʎ], which leads us to the Old Spanish reflex of the word
Mulier /muljer/ > Muglier /mulʎer/

5. However, given the new phoneme developments during Old Spanish, this /lj/ cluster had competing evolutions. The Old Spanish reflex shows one evolution, however, given that the sequence of /je/ if unstressed, reduces to /e/ and in Spanish, the /lj/ becomes the affricate/fricative post-alveolar /ʒ/ with the grapheme representation <ge>
Mulier /muljer/ > Muger /muʒer/

6. This last version of the word is the reflex that won of the two competing evolutions, which is why we see that /ʒ/ became the fricative velar voiceles /x/ in Modern Spanish
Muger /muʒer/ > Mujer /muxɛr/

GENTEM /gentem/ > yente /jente/ > gente /xente/

The stressed vowel is the penultimate Ē. Given its blocked postition this signals that it is the stressed vowel. The stressed vowel Ē follows regular evolution to /e/.

1. Loss of word-final /m/
   GENTEM /gentem/ > Gente /gente/

2. Word initial /g/ before frontal vowel palatalized into /j/ in old Spanish
Gente /gente/ > Yente /jente/

3. In modern spanish the merger of /g/ before front vowels, /j/ assimilates to a following back vowel, giving /x/.as in joven.
Yente /jente/ > gente /xente/

DAMNUM [dam.num] > daño [ˈda.ɲo]

The stressed vowel is the penultimate Ā. Given its blocked postion this signals that it is the stressed vowel. The stressed vowel follows regular evolution.

1. Loss of word final /m/
   DAMNUM /ðamnum/ > Damnu /ðamnu/

2. Word final /u/>/o/
Damnu /ðamnu/ > Damno /ðamno/

3. Regressive assimilation of the /mn/ cluster gives /n:/ which in spanish results in /ɲ/
Damno /ðamno/> daño /ðaɲo/

CAECUS /kajkus/ >Çiego /tsje.ɣo/ > ciego / ˈsje.ɣo/

The stressed syllable is the penultimate cae. The stressed vowel is the dipthong AE (one of the only 3 dipthongs in Latin), making a long vowel signaling that it is stressed.

1. The fricative alveolar voiceless /s/ > zero in word-final position
   CAECUS /kajkus/> Caecu /kaɛku/

2. Word final /u/ > /o/
Caecu /kaɛku/ > Caeco /kaɛko/

3. Lenition of intervocalic consonant  voiceless stop velar /k/ becomes fricative /ɣ/
Caecu /kaɛku/>Caego /kaɛɣo/

4.  The diphthong /aj/ yields low mid /ɛ/ in vulgar latin and then evolves into /je/ in modern spanish represented by the grapheme <ie>
Caego /kaɛɣo/ > Ciego /kjɛɣo/

5. /k/ before /i/ and /e/ became /ts/ , which lead to the voiceless alveolar affricate  [ts] in old Spanish
Ciego /kjɛɣo/ > Çiego /tsjɛɣo/

6. /ts/ de-affricates, resulting in the fricative alveolar voiceless consonant /s/ . It is important to note that however, in In certain regional varieties of Spanish at the stage where [ts] was an allophone reducing to /ts/, this sound was further front to the Fricative interdental voiceless /Ɵ/. This leads to /ts/ disassimilating to continue to be a different phoneme from all the other ones whose places of articulation are too close together. In this case we have the primary evolution to /s/
Çiego /tsjɛɣo/> Ciego /sjeɣo/

PLACǏTUM //ˈpla.ki.tum/ > plazdo /plazðo/ > plazo /plaso/

The stressed vowel is the antepenultimate Ā.

1. Loss of word final /m/
   PLACǏTUM /plakitum/ > PLACǏTU /plakitu/

2. Lenition of intervocalic consonant /t/, voiceless stopped becomes fricative /ð/
PLACǏTU /plakitu/> Placidu /plakiðu/

3.Word final /u/ > /o/
Placidu /plakiðu/ > Placido /plakiðo/

4. /k/ before /i/ becomes the fricative alveolar voiced [z] between vowels in old Spanish
Placido /plakeðo/> Plazido /plaziðo/

5. Syncope of unstressed vowel /i/
Plazido /plaziðo/> Plazdo /plazðo/

6.The consonant cluster /zd/ was unfavorable in pronunciation and was resolved by metathesis
Plazdo /plazðo/ > Pladzo /plaðzo/

7. Assimilation of  the two fricative consonants the alveolar voiced /z/ and /ð/ to the fricative alveolar voiceless /s/ . The allophonic distinction is lost so it deaffricates, leading to the fricative alveolar voiceless consonant /s/. In certain varieties, however, the stage where [ts] was an allophone reducing to /ts/, this sound was further front to the Fricative interdental voiceless /Ɵ/, which we see in ceceo varities in particular.
Plazdo /plazðo/>Plazo /plaso/

DIRECTU : /diːˈrek.tu/ [diːˈrɛk.tʊs]> derecho /dɛ.ˈɾe.ʧo/

The stressed syllable is the penultimate REC, with the stressed vowel being the long ē. Given the long vowel and blocked position, this is the stressed syllable and vowel.

1. Word final /u/ to /o/
   DIRECTU /direktu/ > DIRECTO /direkto/

2. The velar plus dental /kt/ through the process of palatalization creates  the affricative post-alveolar voiced consonant /ʧ/
Directo /direkto/ > Direcho /direʧo/

3. The unstressed antipenultimate vowel ĭ follows normal evolution and becomes /e/
Direcho /dereʧo/ > Derecho /dereʧo/

 

OBLITARE /o.bli.ta.re/  > olvidar /ol.βi.ðaɾ/

The stressed vowel is the penultimate  Ā

1. Lenition of intervocalic /t/ to  /ð/
   OBLITARE /oblitare/ > Oblidare /obliðare/

2. Metathesis of consonant cluster BL to LB
Oblidare /obliðare/ > Olbidare /olbiðare/

3. The word-medial cluster /bl/ in spanish does not palatalzie, it only shows lenition. The only main change we see is a change in the grapheme.

4. Loss of word final e in Spanish
Olvidare /olβiðare/ > Olvidar /olβiðar/

REGNUM /reɡ.num/ > reyno [rejno] > reino /rɛno/

The stressed vowel is the penultimate  Ē.

1. The stressed short vowel ĕ follows normal evolution becoming /ɛ/

2. Loss of word-final /m/
REGNUM /rɛɣnum/ > Regnu /rɛɣnu/

3. Word final /u/ to /o/
Regnu /rɛɣnu/ > Regno /rɛɣno/

4. The cluster /gn/ consisting of velar dental consonants experiences further leniton to become /ʎ/
Regno /rɛgno/ > Reyno /rɛʎno/

5. Diphthongization of /ei/ to form /ɛj/
Reyno /rɛʎno/ > Reino /rɛjno/

PARADISUS /pa.ra. di.sus/ > paradiso /paraðiso/ >paraíso /paraiso/

The stressed vowel is the penultimate Ī.

1. /s/ > zero in word-final position
   PARADĪSUS /paradisus/ > Paradisu /paradisu/

2. The original intervocalic voiced stop /d/ undergoes lenition and becomes the fricative voiced stop /ð/
Paradisu /paradisu/ > Paradisu /paraðisu/

3. Word final /u/ to /o/
Paradisu /paraðisu/ > Paradiso /paraðiso/

4. Complete lenition of intervocalic fricative  /ð/
Paradiso /paraðiso/ > Paraíso /paraiso/

---

Analysis of the verbal morphology

“-¡Martín Antolínez, sodes ardida lança, 79
si yo bivo, doblarvos he la soldada!” 80 (ch 6)

 ESTIS > sodes > sois.
To be is one of the frequently used verbs that became irregular in all three reflexes. Specifically, in the evolution of second plural form of the Latin verb ESTIS shows the process of analogy. Given the present indicative forms of the Latin verb were sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt, the evolution of the Latin second plural form ESTIS to SUTIS to sodes in Old Spanish shows analogy to the forms SUM, SUMUS, and SUNT. In Old Spanish there was lenition of intervocalic /t/ to /ð/ resulting in the Old Spanish form of the verb, sodes /soðɛs/. The short U in Latin follows the regular process of evolution to becoming /o/ with the grapheme o. In Modern Spanish, the Old Spanish form of the verb, sodes /soðɛs/ is replaced by the syncopated sois after the complete lenition of the intervocalic /ð/.

De Castiella vos ides pora las yentes estranas, 176 (ch 10)

Ītis > Ides vāditis > vais
The verb ‘to go’ is one that is irregular in all three reflexes. In the case of the verb ir in Spanish, it exemplifies suppletion, which is the convergence of formerly unrelated forms into one paradigm. We can see this clearly in this text with the presence of the Old Spanish version of the verb.

The modern infinitive version of the verb ir is derived from the latin verb ĪRE, however, it’s modern indicative present forms are derived from the Latin verb VADĔRE.

It is likely that Old Spanish, given its more conservative nature, more closely followed the Latin ĪRE, which we see in this example. The second plural form of the verb in Latin results in ītis. Lenition of intervocalic /t/ to /ð/ results in the Old Spanish form of the verb, ides /iðɛs/.

In modern Spanish, the Old Spanish form of the verb, ides /iðɛs/ is replaced by the syncopated reflex of VĀDǏTǏS, vais.
● Syncope of the unstressed syllable DǏ
○ VĀDǏTǏS > VĀTǏS
● Complete lenition of intervocalic fricative /t/
○ VĀTǏS > VĀǏS

Indicative present
eō            īmus
īs              ītis
it              eunt

vādō        vādimus
vādis       vāditis
vādit       vādunt

Cuando lo sopo mio Ci del de Bivar (295 ch 18)

SAPǓĪ [sapwi]> Sope [sope] > supe [supe]
This example displays the effects of metaphony. The word final diphthong exerted a harmonizing effect on the stressed penultimate vowel A. The effect of this metaphony is to create the sound [aw], creating the form [sawpe]. In old Spanish this [aw] evolved into [o], resulting in [sope] Sope. Given that this verb is an example of a strong preterite, it experienced analogy of the [o] becoming a high vowel [u]. This resulted in the modern form of the verb, supe [supe].

Sacó el pie del estribera, una ferida l’ dava; 38
non se abre la puerta, ca bien cerrada. 39 (ch 4)

Aperit >abre – aperuit> abrió
The preterit tense was a completely new addition to the original Latin verb system, it did not exist. For this reason, this example shows the use of the indicative present in the Old Spanish form of the Latin verb APERIT. This form followed standard sound changes such as lenition of the intervocalic /p/ to /b/, syncope of the unstressed vowel /e/, deletion of the word final <t>, and evololution of word final /i/ to /e/.

In the modern Spanish reflex of the word, we see the development of the preterit tense. The modern Spanish reflex of the word follows the same sound changes as the Old Spanish, but in addition, we have the appearance of the preterit ending, which was formed from the Latin indicative perfect form of the word APERUIT. Similarly, to the class I stress shifts, here there is a stress shift from I to U, which resulted in the ending ió.

aperīre
Modern: preterit
Indicative perfect
aperuī         aperuimus
aperuistī    aperuistis
aperuit       aperuērunt

Indicative present
aperiō      aperīmus
aperīs       aperītis
aperit        aperiunt

Non vos osariemos abrir nin coger por nada;
si non, perderiemos los averes e las casas.

perdĕre habēbāmus > Perderiemos > perderíamos
Another new form that did not exist in classical latin that was formed with the romance reflexes was the conditional mood. This was a result of a combination of the infinitives and participles to express a future in the past. In this case, the Old Spanish shows a proto-future form of the verb, which later would be represented by the conditional. In old Spanish, perdĕre was combined with habēmus, which resulted in perdĕre + ēmus, which led to the Old Spanish reflex perderiemos. In the modern Spanish reflex, we see the presence of the conditional which was formed by combining perdĕre and habēbāmus, Perdĕre+ēbāmus (eamus), resulted in the modern conditional form perderíamos.

habeō        habēmus
habēs        habētis
habet        habent

Perdĕre habēbam       Perdĕre habēbāmus
Perdĕre habēbās         Perdĕre habēbātis
Perdĕre habēbat         Perdĕre habēbant

Perdĕre *[ea]
Perdĕre *[eas]
Perdĕre *[eat]
Perdĕre *[eamus]
Perdĕre *[eatis]
Perdĕre *[eant]

así lo an asmado e metudo en carta:
vendido les á Alocer por tres mil marcos de plata. 845 (ch 44)

MITTERE >MISSU> METTUTO >Metudo>Metido
This displays the process of weakening of strong participles that took place as the Romance reflexes evolved. The verb MITTERE, a class III verb, did not have a past participle; however, in popular Latin when class III began to evolve into class II verbs, they evolved into UTU participles. Modern Spanish eliminated the udo ending for the ido ending.

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Analysis of the noun and adjective morphology

La cabeça tornando va

Caput /ˈka.put/ + itia /ˈi.ti.a/ > capitia /kapitia/ > cabeça /kaˈβetsia/ > cabeza /kaˈβeθa/
Phrase evolution:
The Classical Latin noun for the word “head” was caput (third declension, accusative, neuter). However, in Vulgar Latin the noun-forming suffix -itia(first declension, feminine) was added to the end of the word. Given that this ending is used to form nouns describing the condition of something, this is not the normal evolution of this word. Nonetheless, this created the Vulgar Latin form of the word capitia. Thus the original neuter form of the word was analyzed as a feminine singular noun in Vulgar latin, leading to it’s addition to the feminine gender in Spanish. Spanish lost the case system of Latin, thus favoring the accusative form.

Sound changes:
The stressed vowel is the long antepenultimate ā  /a/.The classical latin noun for “head” was caput /ˈka.put/, but in vulgar latin the ending /itia/ (an abstract noun-forming suffix) was added to the end of the word. This created the vulgar latin form of the word capitia /kapitia/.  The unstressed short vowel ǐ follows the regular spanish evolution to the high mid front vowel /e/, creating capetia /kapetia/. After lenition, the original voiceless stop /p/ becomes the fricative /β/ in Spanish, resulting in cabetia /kaβetia/. In Spanish, /tj/ plus front vowel became /ts/ in Old Spanish, forming cabeça /kaˈβetsa/. Finally, /ts/ was further fronted to the modern z /θ/, creating the current Spanish reflex: kaˈβeθa/

D’este pan

Pānis /ˈpaː.nis/

ISTE [ˈɪs.tɛ]
Masculine
Genitive
Third declension

Phrase evolution:
The third declension does keep some of its former neuters, such as MARE > mar. Parisyllabic are those whose stem has the same number of syllables throughout the declension (PANIS), and unlike their imparisyllabic counterparts parisyllables did not need to be leveled which is why we do not see this change. This word is reclassified from the third to the second declension once the third declension began to disappear, becoming a masculine singular verb in modern Spanish. The demonstrative “este” comes from the latin demonstrative HIC for “this”. However, all the romance languages replaced HIC with the 2nd person ISTE/U instead. The genitive case began to dissolve even in early latin because it could be replaced by DE + noun. This was one of the steps in the evolution of Latin’s six cases to two cases. We see this here with the use of the phrase “d’este” a combination of de +este.

Sound changes:
For the word, Pānis /ˈpaː.nis/ the stressed vowel is the penultimate a, which is heavy ā /a/. Knowing this, we can identify syncope of the unstressed vowel /i/ resulting in the form /ˈpaː.ns/. Then /s/ > zero in word-final position, leading to  /pan/.

For the word, iste the stressed vowel is the penultimate i, which is light ĭ. Following the normal progression for a light ĭ, this becomes /e/ , leading to the modern spanish reflex /este/.

De rica piel

Pellis  >[ˈpɛl.lɪs] > pielle /pjɛlle/ > piel /pjɛl/
Feminine
Third declension
Genitive
Singular

Phrase evolution:
The genitive case began to dissolve even in early latin because it could be replaced by DE + noun. This was one of the steps in the evolution of Latin’s six cases to two cases. Old Spanish lost the case marking system. In modern spanish the DE before the noun is completely lost. Just as in modern spanish, Latin adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they modify.

Sound changes:
The stressed vowel is the short penultimate ě  /ɛ/. This vowel follows the normal short ě vowel evolution to /ɛ/ to [je] “ie” in Old Spanish, creating piellis /pjɛllɪs/. The short unstressed ǐ follows the normal evolution becoming /e/ in proto romance, forming /pjɛlles/. Then /s/ > zero in word-final position, leading to  /pjɛlles/. The long consonant /l:/ degeminated becoming a plain consonant /l/. There is also loss of word-final vowel /e/ in the modern Spanish reflex, resulting in  piel /pjɛl/.

Mostrando los miráculos

Mīrāculum
Accusative
Neuter
Second declension

Phrase evolution:
Latin had no definite article, but pre-Romance speech was already creating one from the demonstrative ILLE. By the time of the earliest Romance documents definite article is a fully grammatized category. Used as a definite article, ILLE was unstressed. In Spanish, under this condition LL reduces to [l]. This yields ele, ela, elos, elas. These words eventually lose the front vowel /e/, except for ele which loses the word-final e, which follows the typically pattern of a word final vowel, making la an exception. In the evolution from three to two genders, neuters of the second declension easily became masculine (considering the typical loss of word final m), leading to Miraculum to become a masculine word rather than a neutral word.

Sound changes:
Mīrāculum /miːˈraː.ku.lum/  > miráculo /miˈra.ku.lu/ > milagro [miˈlaɣɾo]
The stressed vowel is the antepenultimate heavy ā /a/. The word final /m/ > zero and then the free word short ŭ follows the typical evolution in proto romance to /o/, creating miraculo. Given the presence of the heavy word initial ī, a stress accent is added to /a/ to distinguish the stressed vowel, creating miráculo /miˈra.ku.lo/. The intervocalic /r/ undergoes lentiion resulting in /l/. There is syncope of the unstressed vowel u /u/, resulting in [miˈlakro]. The consonant cluster /kr/ results in palatalization of the /k/ resulting in the replacement with the consonant /ɣ/, creating the modern reflex milagro [miˈlaɣɾo].

Cuando oy nos partimos.

Nōs
Nominative and accusative plural of ego: we, us

Phrase evolution:
In classical latin, all of the  personal pronouns could stand on their own. However, this changed with Romance, which created a new category of pronouns known as clitics, which cannot stand alone and which behave more like verb affixes than like full-fledged words. Nos is an example of an atonic or clitic pronoun which cannot stand alone. From NOS VOS come Old Spanish nos vos. In some Old Spanish reflexes we see nós and ós, however this is not the case here.  The nosotros currently used in Modern Spanish evolved from the latin Nōs plus from NOS VOS plus ALTRO (alterōs), originally highlight contrast with some other referent which has been now lost. Spanish only uses subject pronouns for emphasis. Otherwise, its atonic subject pronouns are omitted. In this case we see that there is emphasis on the fact that WE will leave, which is why the subject pronoun is included.

Sound changes:
/nos/ +/ˈal.terōs/,> /noˈsotros/
The stressed vowels are the only vowel in nos and the ultimate heavy ō in alteros. With the combination of these two words ( nosalteros ), we first have loss of the unstressed vowel /a/ resulting in /nosl.terōs/. In order to resolve the three consonant cluster ‘slt’, the inter consonantal /l/ is lost to syncope, resulting in /nosterōs/. We then have syncope of the unstressed vowel /e/ resulting in /nosterōs/. In order to resolve the cononant cluster, /o/ is added resulting in  /noˈsotros/.

Redondo, fuerte e grand.

Phrase evolution:
Adjectives that belonged to the Latin third declension are easily recognized in Spanish because they have no gender contrast. Fuerte and grand are examples of this. Meanwhile Redondo displays characteristics of a second declension adjective that does distinguish gender.

Sound changes:
Grandis /ɡran.dɪs/ > /ɡɾand/ > /ɡɾande/
The stressed vowel is the penultimate heavy /a/. /s/ > zero in word-final position, leading to  /ɡɾandi/. Word final vowel /i/ is lost to syncope resulting in /ɡɾand/. Finally, word final /e/ is added to help in pronunciation of the nasal cluster /nd/, creating ɡɾande/.

Fortis /ˈfɔr.tɪs/> fuerte [ˈfwerte]
The stressed vowel is the penultimate light ǒ. This vowel follows the natural progression to/ɔ/ in SPanish, resulting in the grapheme change to ue.   /s/ > zero in word-final position, leading to /ˈfɔr.tɪ/. The short ǐ becomes /e/ following its normal evolution in Spanish, leading to the modern spanish reflex  [ˈfwerte].

Rotundus [roˈtɔn.dɔs] > Redondo [reˈðondo]
The stressed vowel is the anti penultimate heavy ō. The unstressed ǔ and ǒ follows normal evolution in spanish and become /o/, leading to [roˈtondo]. The intervocalic /t/ experiences lenition and becomes the fricative voiceless /ð/. Finally, the stressed vowel ō is an exception as it becomes /e/, which is not it’s typical evolution.

Pronunciation Explanation

• • The grapheme “v” could be pronounced as stop bilabial voiced /b/ or voiced bilabial fricative [β], DEPENDING ON POSITION: word initial or after consonant /b/.
  • If in your passage, do not forget to comment on pronunciation of “ge, gi”, “ja,e,i,o,u”.
  • /ʎ/ delateralized in most varieties into /j/ for graphemes as “y+vowel” and “ll”.
  • The affricates /ts/ ç was simplified to laminodental fricatives /z/ and in some variations it is pronounced as /θ/
  • Voiced alveolar affricate /dz/: represented by ⟨z⟩
  • In old spanish two “s” between vowels = /s/ as in English “hiss”
  • The alveolar trill ⟨r⟩ is present in old spanish and modern spanish however the representation in the grapheme becomes r in modern spanish.