Category: Emmy: El Cantar de Mio Cid

The Cantar de mio Cid is a the oldest surviving work of Spanish literature. It is an epic poem believed to have been composed between 1140 and 1207. The surviving manuscript is located in the Biblioteca Nacional de España, and can be viewed through their online database. This copy is tentatively dated between 1301 and 1400 by the Biblioteca Nacional, although other sources date it later in the 14th century. It is likely a copy of the original manuscript from 1140-1207. The authorship is up for debate, as is the question of whether or not the work was originally part of the oral tradition. The surviving manuscript, known as the Poema del Cid, is attributed to Per Abbat. Though some believe Per Abbat to be the original author of the piece, others think he was simply the scribe to copy the poem, either in 1207 or in the 13th-14th centuries. If Per Abbat was a scribe, he may have either copied the poem from the oral tradition or from yet another lost manuscript.

The question of Per Abbat’s role in the making of the Cantar de Mio Cid and the remaining copy of the Poema del Cid is perhaps the most discussed topic among scholars of the Cantar de Mio Cid. Menéndez Pidal, who studied and transcribed the Poema del Cid manuscript in the 19th century, was of the belief that it was part of the oral tradition. Many more recent translations of the Cantar de Mio Cid are reliant on his copy, as the Poema del Cid manuscript has since been damaged, rendering certain sections unreadable and forcing modern scholars to reference Pidal’s work.

The Cantar de Mio Cid is based on the life of Rodrigo (Ruy) Díaz de Vivar, more commonly known as El Cid or sometimes El Campeador. He was born circa 1043 and died in 1099. He was a Castilian military leader and part of the noble class. He was promoted by Sancho II to standard-bearer at the age of 22, indicating that he likely had a successful military career from a young age. El Cid participated in Sancho II’s successful campaigns against his brother, Alfonso VI. When Sancho II was killed, he left no heirs, leaving Alfonso VI as the successor to the throne. Despite this, El Cid was allowed to remain at court and even married Alfonso VI’s niece, Jimena. They had a son and two daughters.

In terms of the more general history at the time, it is important to consider that Spain as we know it today did not exist. Instead, it was divided between a number of kingdoms, which could be generalized into two categories: the Christian kingdoms in the north, and the Muslim taifas in the south. These taifas were the product of a fractured state following the death of Abd al-Raḥmān Sanchuelo in 1009. This lack of unity in Al-Andalus allowed the Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian peninsula to expand and impose taxes on the areas they invaded, causing more unrest in Al-Andalus between the people and the local leaders. This laid the framework for the eventual Castilian occupation of Toledo in 1085, and the subsequent invasion of the North African Almoravids, who systematically worked to eliminate the taifas in an attempt to save Spanish Islam. This was fairly successful, except in the case of Valencia, which was able to hold out under the command of El Cid.

This time was known as the Reconquista, a campaign by Christian kingdoms to reconquer the territory occupied and controlled by Muslims. This went on for a number of centuries, but during the time of El Cid, the Reconquista was going very well for the Christians. Were it not for a break between the kingdoms of Castile and Leon in the 10th century, it is quite possible that the Reconquista may have ended much sooner.

Ferdinand I of Castile united the kingdoms of Castile and León, and also began to exert control over the taifas, who were unable to cooperate with each other in order to avoid the influence of the Catholic kingdoms, now united under Ferdinand I. On his death, he once again divided the kingdoms among his sons, giving Castile and the tributes of Zaragoza to his oldest son, Sancho II, giving León and the tributes of Toledo to his second son, Alfonso VI, and giving Galicia, the district of Portugal, and the tributes of Badajoz and Sevilla to his youngest son, García. This went against all precedent established by previous rulers of León, and his son Sancho II felt slighted by this. He thought that the kingdoms should remain united, and set out to reestablish the unity achieved by his father.

Sancho II was able to defeat Alfonso VI, but was unable to gain any territory after the victory. He was more successful in his attempt to depose his brother García, who was forced to flee to Sevilla. Following this, he had a more successful attack on Alfonso VI, who was forced to flee to Toledo. Sancho II was assassinated soon after his success in taking over León, possibly as part of a plot between his sister and Alfonso VI. Whether or not he was actually involved in the assassination plot, Alfonso VI certainly benefited from his brother’s death, as he became the next heir to both Castile and León. He also gained control of the lands given to García, who was imprisoned by Alfonso VI upon his return from Sevilla. El Cid, as the former leader of Sancho II’s forces, did not trust Alfonso VI and popular legend states that El Cid required Alfonso VI to swear an oath of purgation to prove his innocence in the assassination before accepting him as king. El Cid, despite being admitted to the court, never had a close relationship with Alfonso VI.

Alfonso VI began by imposing tributes on the taifas, but quickly escalated his efforts to the point of conquest over them. The subjects of the taifas became increasingly hostile toward their local kings, and eventually brought about their downfalls, which only served to complicate things for Alfonso VI. Valencia declared independence, Sevilla took over Cordoba and began looking to extend power elsewhere, and Alfonso VI’s relationship with Toledo became increasingly strained despite having had close ties, with them previously giving him sanctuary after his deposition by Sancho II.

Al-Qadir, the grandson of al-Mamun, the Toledan leader who granted sanctuary to Alfonso VI, was forced to flee Toledo and went to seek refuge with Alfonso VI. Alfonso VI agreed to reinstate al-Qadir to power, so long as he agreed to eventually leave Toledo and instead move to Valencia, where he would be given leadership with the help of Alfonso VI’s armies if necessary. Soon after, he exiled El Cid, influenced by others within the court and perhaps fearing what El Cid could be capable of. This is where the Cantar de Mio Cid begins, with El Cid leaving his home and beginning his journey in exile to Zaragoza and eventually Valencia. El Cid was successful in defending Zaragoza from invading forces, possibly believing it to be in the best interests of Alfonso VI, who was still theoretically collecting tribute.

Alfonso VI eventually sieged Toledo at the request of al-Qadir, whose power was becoming increasingly unstable. The city surrendered, and the remaining cities of Sevilla, Granada, and Badajoz, who were still against Alfonso VI grew concerned. They sent for help from the Almoravids in North Africa when they realized that they would be unable to defeat Alfonso VI alone. The Almoravids responded, and won a decisive victory over Alfonso VI’s forces before retreating back home.

El Cid, now readmitted to Alfonso VI’s service, was authorized to conquer whatever lands he was able to hold in the East. He went to Valencia, and became the protector of al-Qadir. When the people of Valencia rebelled and killed al-Qadir, El Cid implemented himself as ruler and maintained strict control over the city of Valencia and the surrounding areas. When the Almoravids came back, intending to conquer the remaining taifas, Valencia, under the command of El Cid, was the first city able to hold a defence against them. He remained in charge of the city until his death, upon which his wife, Jimena, and her son-in-law maintained lordship over Valencia. They abandoned the city by order of Alfonso VI after the Almoravids besieged the city in 1101.

Though it does have some basis in fact, and maintains an air of realism not present in many other examples of epic poetry, the Cantar de Mio Cid does not correspond exactly to the life of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar. Because he was quickly adopted as a national hero of Castile, the facts of his life were quickly turned into legend, a phenomenon helped along by the Cantar de Mio Cid. The poem starts when he is exiled, and continues through the later part of his life. The main departure from fact has to do with a secondary storyline emerging after the seeming resolution when Alfonso VI pardons El Cid. Two young men from the court of Alfonso VI (los infantes) use their standing in the court to become engaged to El Cid’s daughters in the hopes that it will make them wealthy. There is no historical precedence for these events, and the inclusion of the infantes as, perhaps, the primary antagonists is certainly interesting. It takes the focus of the Cantar de Mio Cid and centers it on the conflict between El Cid, seen as the brave and loyal hero, and the infantes, the self-serving and manipulative villains, turning the epic into a tale of morality and honor rather than one of pure history.

There were many languages spoken in the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the Cantar de Mio Cid. Most were descended from Latin through the Visigoths, the last people under whom the Iberian peninsula was unified. However, there was also substantial Arabic influence, especially in the south. Many different versions of “Hispano-Romance” showed up after the fall of the Visigoths, mainly spoken in northern Spain with divides mostly following political boundaries. This range of languages came to include Galician, Leonese, Castilian, Navarro-Aragonese, and Catalan. As these languages grew, they mostly replaced various dialects of Mozarabic, largely spoken in the south. The northern dialects, with more social prestige than Mozarabic and the force of the Reconquista behind them, quickly spread through to the south. Castilian eventually became the most widely spoken, given the importance of Castile during the Reconquista, though Mozarabic has left its influence on the language. The Cantar de Mio Cid is written in Old Spanish, a version of the Castilian that emerged throughout much of the Iberian peninsula and evolved into Modern Spanish.

Works Cited

Harris, Martin. “The Romance Languages,” The Romance Languages. Oxford University Press, 1988. https://moodle.mtholyoke.edu/pluginfile.php/560717/mod_label/intro/Harris.pdf

“Introduction,” Cantar de Mio Cid, https://miocid.wlu.edu/main/?v=eng

“Muslim Spain,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Muslim-Spain#ref70374

O’Callaghan, Joseph F. “Alfonso VI, the Taifas, and the Almoravids,” A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press, 1975. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/ j.ctt5hh0cv.14?refreqid=excelsior%3Aefea946a867466492e2e73a3ab76bb2d&seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents

Poema del Cid. Biblioteca Digital Hispanica, http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000036451

“Presentación del Cantar de Mio Cid,” Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/cantar_de_mio_cid/presentacion/

“Reconquista,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Reconquista

“El Cid,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/El-Cid-Castilian-military-leader

Smith, Colin. “Per Abbat and the ‘Poema de mio Cid,’” JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43627834.pdf

Smith, Colin. The Making of the Poema de Mio Cid. Cambridge University Press, 1983.

“The Almoravids,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/The-Almoravids

Cantar I, Lines 935-1017

Old Spanish

Non lo tardo el que en buen ora nasco
Tierras dal canz negras las va parando
E a derredor todo lo va preando
Alterçer dia don yxo y es tornado
Hya va el mandado por las tierras todas
Pesando va alos de monçon e alos de huesca
Por que dan parias plaze alos de saragoça
De myo çid Ruy diaz que non temien ninguna fonta
Con estas ganançias ala posada tornando seuan
Todos son alegres ganançias traen grandes
Plogo a myo çid e mucho a albarfanez
Sonrrisos el caboso que non lo pudo en durar
Hya caualleros dezir uos he la verdad
Qui en vn logar mora siempre lo so puede menguar
Cras ala mañana penssemos de caualgar
Dexat estas posadas e yremos a delant
Estonçes se mudo el çid al puerto de alucant
Dent corre myo çid a huesca e a mont aluan
En aquessa corrida .x. dias ouieron amorar
Fueron los mandados a todas partes
Que el salido de castiella asilos trae tan mal
Los mandados son ydos atodas partes
Legaron las nueuas alconde de barçilona
Que myo çid Ruy diaz quel corrie la tierra toda
Ouo grand pesar e touos lo a grand fonta
El conde es muy folon e dixo vna vanidat
Grandes tuertos me tiene myo çid el de biuar
Dentro en mi cort tuerto me touo grand
Firiom el sobrino e non lo en mendo mas
Agora correm las tierras que en mi enpara estan
Non lo des afie nil torne enemistad
Mas quando el melo busca yr gelo he yo demandar
Grandes son los poderes e a priessa seuan legando
Gentes se le alegan grandes entre moros e xpistianos
Adelinan tras myo çid el bueno de biuar
Tres dias e dos noches penssaron de andar
Alcançaron a myo çid en teuar e el pinar
Asi viene es forçado que el conde amanos sele cuydo tomar
Myo çid don Rodrigo trae grand ganançia
Diçe de vna sierra e legaua a vn val
Del conde don Remont venido les mensaie
Myo çid quando lo oyo en bio pora alla
Digades al conde non lo tenga a mal
Delo so non lieuo nada dexem yr en paz
Respuso el conde esto non sera verdad
Lo de antes e de agora todom lo pechara
Sabra el salido a quien vino desondrar
Tornos el mandadero quanto pudo mas
Essora lo connosçe mio çid el de biuar
Que a menos de batalla nos pueden den quitar
Ya caualleros a part fazed la ganançia
Apriessa uos guarnid e metedos en las armas
El conde don Remont dar nos ha grant batalla
De moros e de xpistianos gentes trae sobeianas
Amenos de batalla non nos dexarie por nada
Pues a dellant yran tras nos aqui sea la batalla
Apretad los cauallos e bistades las armas
Ellos vienen cuesta yuso e todos trahen calças
Elas siellas coçeras e las çinchas amoiadas
Nos caualgaremos siellas gallegas e huesas sobre calças
Çiento caualleros deuemos vençer a quelas mesnadas
Antes que ellos legen a laño presentemos les las lanças
Por vno que firgades tres siellas yran vazias
Vera remont verengel tras quien vino en alcança
Oy en este pinar de teuar por toler me la ganançia
Todos son adobados quando myo çid esto ouo fablado
Las armas auien presas e sedien sobre los cauallos
Vieron la cuesta yuso la fuerça delos francos
Alfondon dela cuesta çerca es de laño
Mando los ferir myo çid el que en buen ora nasco
Esto fazen los sos de voluntad e de grado
Los pendones e las lanças tan bien las uan enpleando
Alos vnos firiendo e a los otros de Rocando
Vençido a esta batalla el que en buen ora nasco
Al conde don Remont a preson lean tomado
Hy gaño a colada que mas vale de mill marcos de plata
y bençio esta batalla poro ondro su barba
Priso lo al conde pora su tierra lo leuaua
Asos creenderos mandar lo guardaua
De fuera dela tienda vn salto daua
De todas partes los sos se aiuntaron
Plogo a myo çid ca grandes son las ganançias

 

Modern Spanish

No lo retrasó el que en buena hora nació,
Tierras de Alcañiz negras las va dejando
Y sus alrededores todos lo va depredando;
Al tercer día, de donde salió, allí ha regresado.
Ya va por las tierras todas el mandado
A los de Monzón y a los de Huesca les va pesando,
Porque dan parias, los de Zaragoza se van alegrando
Pues de Mio Cid Ruy Díaz no temían ningún maltrato.
Con estas ganancias a los campamentos regresando van,
Todos son alegres, ganancias traen grandes,
Le agradó a Mio Cid y mucho a Alvar Fáñez.
Se sonrió el adalid, que no se pudo aguantar.
Ya caballeros, voy a deciros la verdad:
Quien en un lugar mora siempre, lo suyo puede menguar;
Mañana por la mañana nos dispondremos a cabalgar,
Dejad estos campamentos e iremos adelante.
Estonces se mudó el Cid al puerto de Alucat,
Hace Mio Cid correrías en Huesca y en Montalbán,
Dos días en aquellas correrías tuvieron que gastar.
Fueron los mandados a todas partes,
Que el salido de Castilla así los trae tan mal.
Los mandados fueron a todas partes.
Llegaron las nuevas al conde de Barcelona,
De Mio Cid Ruy Díaz y de sus correrías por la tierra toda;
Sintió muy grand pesar y lo tuvo a gran deshonra.
El conde es muy follón y dijo entonces una vanidad.
Grandes agravios me ha hecho Mio Cid el de Vivar;
Dentro en mi corte me hizo agravio muy grande,
Golpeó a mi sobrino y no lo enmendó jamás;
Agora me recorre las tierras que en mi dominio están.
No lo desafié ni le devolví enemistad,
Mas cuando él me lo busca, se lo iré a demandar.
Grandes son las huestes y aprisa se van acercando,
Grandes gentes se unen de entre moros y cristianos,
Marchan contra Mio Cid el bueno de Vivar,
Tres días y dos noches no dejaron de avanzar,
Alcanzaron a Mio Cid en Tévar y el pinar;
Así viene de reforzado el conde, que a manos le pensó atrapar.
Mio Cid don Rodrigo traía grandes ganancias,
Desciende de una sierra y llegaba a un valle;
Del conde don Ramón le ha llegado un mensaje.
Mio Cid cuando lo oyó, envió para allá.
Decidle al conde no lo tenga a mal,
de lo suyo no llevo nada, que me deje ir en paz.
Respondió el conde: ¡Esto es verdad!
Lo de antes y de agora todo me lo pagará.
¡Va a saber el desterrado a quién vino a deshonrar!
Se volvió el mensajero a no poder más;
Ahora comprende Mio Cid el de Vivar
Que a menos de batalla no se podrán de allí marchar.
Ya caballeros, guardad aparte la ganancia,
Aprisa pertrechaos y echad manos a las armas;
El conde don Ramón nos va presentar batalla,
De moros y de cristianos trae gentes soberanas,
A menos batallemos no nos dejarán por nada.
Más adelante nos tratarán de atacar, sea pues aquí la batalla;
Apretad los caballos y vestid las armas.
Ellos vienen cuesta abajo y todos traen calzas
Y las sillas bien guarnecidas y las cinchas bien forradas;
En sillas gallegas cabalgaremos nos y botas sobre calzas;
Cien caballeros debemos vencer aquellas mesnadas,
Antes que lleguen al llano, les presentaremos las lanzas,
Por uno que golpeéis, tres sillas vacías vayan.
¡Verá Ramón Berenguer tras quien a chocar armas
Hoy en este pinar de Tévar para quitarme la ganancia!
Todos están preparados, cuando Mio Cid hubo hablado,
Las armas tenían en mano, montados en sus caballos,
Vieron venir cuesta abajo las huestes de los francos,
En lo hondo de la cuesta, ya cerca del llano,
Los mandó atacar Mio Cid, el nacido con buen hado.
Esto hacen los suyos de voluntad y de agrado,
Los pendones y las lanzas tan bien las van empleando,
A los unos golpeando y a los otros derribando.
Vencido ha esta batalla el nacido con buen hado.
Al conde don Remón a prisión se lo han llevado;
Allí ha ganado a Colada, que de plata vale más de mil marcos.
Allí venció esta batalla y con ella honró su barba.
Prendieron al conde, para su tierra lo llevaba,
A sus servidores mandó que lo guardaran;
Fuera de la tienda ya se retiraba.
De todas partes los suyos se juntaban;
Se complació Mio Cid de lo grande que era su gananica.
A Mio Cid don Rodrigo gran festín aderezaban.

 

English Translation

He who was born in a fortunate hour did not delay,
lands of Alcañiz he is laying waste to them,
and all around he loots everything,
on the third day from where he left, there he has returned.
Now the message goes out through all the lands,
it worries those of Monzón and those of Huesca,
because they pay tribute it pleases those of Zaragoza,
from my Cid Ruy Díaz they did not fear any harm.
With this plunder they are returning to the camp,
all are happy, they bring great riches,
it pleased my Cid and Álvar Fáñez greatly.
The worthy one smiled, for he couldn’t wait any longer,
-Oh knights, I will tell you the truth,
he who stays in one place always, his wealth may diminish,
early tomorrow let’s get ready to ride,
leave these dwellings and we’ll move ahead.
Then the Cid moved on to the port of Olocau,
from there my Cid raids Huesca and Montalbán,
on that raid they spent ten days.
The news went out everywhere
that the exile from Castile is treating them so cruelly.
The news has gone out everywhere,
the news arrived to the count of Barcelona,
that my Cid Ruy Díaz was raiding all his land,
he was very upset and took it as a great offense.
The count is very conceited and said a foolish thing,
-My Cid of Vivar has done me grievous wrongs,
within my court he did me a great grievance,
he struck my nephew and he never made amends with me for it,
now he is raiding the lands that are under my protection.
I did not challenge him nor did I declare enmity,
but, when he comes to me looking for it, I will go to him for reckoning.-
Great are his forces and quickly they start arriving,
great numbers of people are joining him, both Moors and Christians,
they ride out after my Cid the good one from Vivar,
three days and two nights they did ride,
they caught up with my Cid in the pine wood of Tévar,
he comes with such great forces, that the count expected to take him in his hands.
My Cid don Rodrigo brings great wealth,
he descends a mountain and arrived at a valley.
From Count don Remont a message has arrived for him,
my Cid, when he heard it, sent back that way,
-Tell the count not to take it so hard,
I take nothing of his, may he let me go in peace.-
Replied the count, -This will not be so,
the previous and the present things, he will pay me for all of them,
this exile will find out whom he has dishonored.-
The messenger returned as quickly as he could,
at that moment my Cid of Vivar realized it,
that without a battle they won’t be able to leave there.
-Oh knights, put the booty aside,
quickly suit up and put on your armor,
Count don Remont will give us great battle,
he brings multitudes of people, Moors and Christians,
without a battle he would not let us go for anything.
Since later they will come after us, let the battle be here,
tighten up the horses and put on your armor.
They are coming downhill and they are all wearing hose,
and their racing saddles and their cinches loose,
we will ride with Galician saddles and riding boots over our hose,
we with one hundred knights should defeat those forces.
Before they reach the plain, let’s level our lances at them,
for every one of them you strike three saddles will go empty,
Remont Berenguer will see who he came chasing after,
today in this pine forest of Tévar to take my riches from me.
All are ready when my Cid had spoken this,
they had taken up their arms and were seated on their horses,
they saw the Frankish force coming downhill,
at the bottom of the hill it is near the plain,
my Cid ordered them to strike, he who was born in a fortunate hour.
This his men do willingly and gladly,
their pennons and their lances they are handling them so well,
wounding some and unhorsing others.
He who was born in a fortunate hour has won this battle,
Count don Remont he has taken prisoner.
There he won Colada, worth more than one thousand marks of silver,
there he won this battle, whereby he honored his beard.
He captured the count, to his land he took him,
his loyal servants he ordered to guard him.
Out of his tent he took a step,
from all sides his men joined him,
my Cid was pleased for his winnings are great.
For my Cid don Rodrigo a great feast was prepared

 

Works Cited

“Cantar de Mio Cid – Interactive,” Cantar de Mio Cid, https://miocid.wlu.edu/sw/frames.php?f=01r_1&t=13&r=25&b=sf&p=Unknown&ot=0

“Parte Primera – La Gesta,” http://people.duke.edu/~garci/cibertextos/ANONIMO/Mio -cid/MODERNO/DEST-MOD-PALE.HTM

“Parte Segunda – La Razon,” http://people.duke.edu/~garci/cibertextos/ANONIMO/Mio -cid/MODERNO/RAZ-MOD-PALE.HTM

Cantar de Mio Cid Phonetic Analysis

The word “myo” is prevalent throughout the entire Cantar de Mio Cid, as it appears in the name of the titular character. It comes from the Latin “meum” and becomes “mío” in modern Spanish. The loss of the word final bilabial nasal /m/ turns [meum] into [meu]. The final high back vowel /u/ becomes mid-high back /o/, creating [meo]. Then, the stressed mid-high front vowel /e/ diphthongizes to /ie/, creating /mieo/. Later, the diphthong /ie/ simplifies to high front vowel /i/, creating the Old Spanish [mio] or <myo>. This grapheme, <myo>, changed to <mío> in modern Spanish. (meum → myo → mío)

The word “fablado” is used in Cantar I, line 1000. The infinitive form of the verb, “fablar” comes from the Latin “fabulari,” and becomes “hablar” in modern Spanish. First, the Latin [fabulari] lost the word final high front /i/ and the unstressed high back vowel /u/, creating the Old Spanish [fablar]. The stressed penultimate syllable central back /a/ remains the same through to modern Spanish. After this, the word initial labiodental fricative [f] became voiceless glottal fricative [h], [hablar]. In modern Spanish, the graphemic representation <hablar> reflects this stage, though the /h/ has since become silent. (fabulari  → fablar → hablar)

The word “connosçe” is used in Cantar I, line 983. The infinitive form of this verb comes from the Latin “cognoscere” and becomes “conocer” in modern Spanish.  First, the Latin [kognoskere] lost the word final mid-high front /e/, becoming [kognosker]. The stressed penultimate syllable /e/ remains the same through to modern Spanish. Then, complete lenition of the voiced velar stop /g/ and the evolution of voiceless velar stop /k/ to voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/ occured, creating the Old Spanish [konostser], or <connosçer>, as the grapheme <ç> represents phoneme /ts/. Finally, in modern Spanish, the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ and /ts/ simplified to /s/, creating [konoser]. The grapheme change seems to have occured in much the same way, with the simplification of the <nn> to <n> and the <sts> to <c>, leading to <conocer>. (cognoscere  → Connosçe → conocer)

The word “leuaua” is used in Cantar I, line 1012. The infinitive form of this verb, “leuar,” comes from the Latin “levare” and becomes Spanish “levar” or “llevar.” The grapheme <u> is used over the grapheme <v> in most cases in the Cantar de Mio Cid, so <leuaua> can just as easily be written <levava>, a change which occurred sometime before modern Spanish. The word final mid-high front [e] in Latin [leware] is lost, creating the word [lewar], or <leuar>, the form used in old Spanish. The stressed penultimate syllable central back /a/ remains the same through to modern Spanish. In the third person present tense, “leuar” became “lieua.” This <i> was pronounced as the voiced palatal fricative (semi-consonant) yod [j], which came to influence the whole word and was represented by grapheme <ll>. Later, the  /w/ strengthened to [β], creating [ʎeβar], or <llevar>. (levare → leuar → llevar)

The word “laño” is used in Cantar I, line 996. This word comes from the Latin “planus” and becomes “llano” in modern Spanish. The word final voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ in Latin [planus] is deleted, creating [planu]. The stressed penultimate syllable central back /a/ remains the same through to modern Spanish. It is possible that a yod began to emerge at the end of the word, leading to the eventual palatalization of voiced alveolar nasal /n/ to voiced palatal nasal /ɲ/ in [plaɲu]. Then, word final high back rounded /u/ evolved to mid-high back rounded /o/, creating [plaɲo]. At some point in this process, complete lenition of the word initial voiceless bilabial stop /p/ occured, leading to the old Spanish [laɲo], or <laño>. The change from word initial voiced lateral alveolar approximant /l/ to voiced palatal fricative /j/ is less easily explained, and seems to be an exception during the evolution from old to modern Spanish. The /ɲ/ also reverts back to /n/, leading to the modern Spanish [jano] or <llano>. (planus → laño → llano)

The word “pues” is used in Cantar I, line 990. The word comes from the Latin “poste” and remains “pues” in modern Spanish. The word final mid-high front /e/ in Latin [poste] is deleted, creating [post]. The voiceless alveolar stop /t/ also goes through total lenition, creating [pos]. The stressed mid-high back rounded long /ō/ changes to short /o/ in vulgar Latin, but this change seems to have occurred early enough that the vulgar Latin /o/ continued evolving to the low-mid back rounded /ↄ/ and finally diphthongized to /ue/ in modern Spanish, creating [pues] and <pues>. (poste → pues → pues)

The word “bien” is used in Cantar I, line 1007. It comes from the Latin “bene” and remains “bien” in modern Spanish. The word final mid-high front /e/ in Latin [bene] goes through total lenition, creating [ben]. The stressed short /ě/ becomes the low-mid front /ε/ in vulgar Latin, and finally diphthongizes to /ie/ in modern Spanish, creating the final word, [bien] or <bien>. (bene → bien → bien)

The word “mensaie” is used in Cantar I, line 975. It is a borrowing from old Occitan “messatge,” which originally comes from Latin “missus” and vulgar Latin “missaticum.” The voiceless alveolar stop /t/, in old Occitan [mesatge] first appears to go through the process of sonorization, becoming voiced alveolar stop /d/ and creating the pair /dg/. This consonant cluster then simplifies to the yod voiced palatal fricative /j/, creating [mesaje]. At some point, a nasal was introduced into the word, creating the old Spanish [mensaje] or <mensaie>. After this, the /j/ becomes the voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/, before continuing to evolve into voiceless velar fricative /x/, becoming the modern Spanish [mensaxe] or <mensaje>. (missus → vulg. Lat. missaticum → old Occitan messatge → mensaie → mensaje)

The word “dexarie” is used in Cantar I, line 989. The infinitive form, “dexar,” comes from the Latin “lexare” and becomes “dejar” in modern Spanish. The stressed penultimate syllable central back /a/ remains the same through to modern Spanish. The word final mid-front /e/ in [leksare] is deleted, becoming [leksar]. The voiceless velar stop and voiceless alveolar fricative /ks/ cluster changed to the voiceless postalveolar affricate /tʃ/, creating [letʃar]. At some point, the initial voiced alveolar lateral approximant /l/ shifted to voiced alveolar lateral stop /d/, a shift which occurs in other Spanish words as well, and the word became old Spanish [detʃar]. In modern Spanish, the /tʃ/ became voiceless velar fricative /x/ in [dexar]. The final grapheme change, from <dexar> to <dejar>, occurred as part of a spelling reform across the Spanish language where the letter <x> was replaced with the letter <j>, excepting in a few place names, like “Mexico”. (lexare → lexar → dexar → dejar)

The word “estonçes” is used in Cantar I, line 951. This word comes from the Latin “in tunc” and becomes “entonces” in modern Spanish. The classical Latin [in tunk] first went through a process of vowel evolution, wherein stressed vowel high front /i/ evolved to mid-high front /e/ and stressed vowel high back rounded /u/ evolved to mid-high back rounded /o/, creating [en tonk]. These two words combined, forming [entonk]. Here, the suffix “-es” was added, creating [entonkes]. After this, voiceless velar stop /k/ went through palatalization into voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/, creating [entontses]. Then, the consonant cluster /nt/ assimilates to /ts/, creating [etsontses], before lenition occurs with the first /ts/ sound, becoming the /st/ cluster and [estontses] or <estonçes> in Old Spanish. This last process seems to have either not fully taken hold in Old Spanish, or later reverted back to [entontses]. Then, the /ts/ continued its change to voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ and voiceless interdental/linguadental fricative /θ/ in modern Spanish, leaving the word [entonθes], or <entonces>. (in tunc → estonçes → entonces)

The word “agora” is used in Cantar I, line 964. This word comes from the Latin “hac hora” and becomes “ahora” in modern Spanish. Both stressed central back /a/ and stressed mid-high back /o/ remain the same through to modern Spanish. The classical Latin words [hak] and [hora] first combined, and became [hakora], losing the word initial voiceless glottal fricative /h/ in [hora] in the process. Then, the word initial /h/ was lost, creating [akora]. In the unprotected intervocalic position, the voiceless velar stop /k/ became the voiced velar stop /g/, leading to the old Spanish [agora], or <agora>. In the change to modern Spanish, this /g/ further weakened to /h/, and was later deleted entirely in [aora], though the graphemic representation still shows this stage, in <ahora>. (hac hora → agora → ahora)

The word “ondro” is used in Cantar I, line 1011. The infinitive form of this word, hondrar, comes from Latin “honorare”, and becomes modern Spanish “honrar”. First, the word final mid-high front /e/ in Latin [honorare] disappeared, leaving [honorar]. Then, the unstressed vowel mid-high back /o/ went through syncope as well, leaving [honrar]. The consonant cluster of voiced alveolar nasal /n/ and voiced alveolar trill /r/ then went through epenthesis, and became the cluster /ndr/ after the addition of voiced alveolar stop /d/, creating [hondrar]. Given the spelling of <ondro>, it is likely that the voiceless glottal fricative /h/ became silent sometime before old Spanish, leaving [ondrar]. The /d/ that was added into old Spanish went through a process of lenition and disappeared in modern Spanish [onrar] or <honrar>.

Verbal Morphology

	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	levare	levar	llevar
1st Sg	levo	lieuo	llevo
2nd Sg	levas	lieuas	llevas
3rd Sg	levat	lieua	lleva
1st Pl	levamus	leuamos	llevamos
2nd Pl	levatis	leuais	lleváis
3rd Pl	levant	lieuan	llevan

In the infinitive form, the word final “-e” is dropped from the word. The endings “-o” and “-as” remain the same through to Modern Spanish, the ending “-amus” follows normal vowel evolution, with the unstressed high back vowel [u] becoming mid-high back [o]. Word final voiceless alveolar stop [t] goes through total lenition in both the 3rd person singular and plural forms as well. In the 2nd person plural, intervocalic [t] goes through total lenition as well. The unusual change that occurs in this form has to do with the root of the word: voiced alveolar lateral approximant [l] becomes voiced palatal lateral approximant [ʎ]. This is not a common change in Spanish, and has to do with analogy from the 3rd person singular form, <lieva>. This change spread to all the singular forms as well as the third person plural in Old Spanish. The [i] in this word then becomes a yod, voiced palatal approximant [j], and the cluster [lj] becomes [ʎ] in Modern Spanish. This change spreads to the other conjugations of the word, even affecting the infinitive. The grapheme <v> changed to <u> in Old Spanish, before reverting back in Modern Spanish.

 

	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	laxare	dexar	dejar
1st Sg	laxo	dexo	dejo
2nd Sg	laxas	dexas	dejas
3rd Sg	laxat	dexa	deja
1st Pl	laxamus	dexamos	dejamos
2nd Pl	laxatis	dexais	dejáis
3rd Pl	laxant	dexan	dejan

In the infinitive form, the word final “-e” is dropped from the word. The endings “-o” and “-as” remain the same through to Modern Spanish, the ending “-amus” follows normal vowel evolution, with the unstressed vowel high back [u] becoming high-mid back [o]. Word final voiceless alveolar stop [t] goes through total lenition in both the 3rd person singular and plural forms as well. In the 2nd person plural, intervocalic [t] goes through total lenition as well. In the root of the word, the shift from word initial voiced alveolar lateral approximant [l] to voiced alveolar stop [d] occurs. For some reason, stressed low central vowel [a] becomes high-mid mid-central [e] in Old Spanish. Old Spanish voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ] becomes voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒ] before finally becoming voiceless velar fricative [x] in Modern Spanish.

 

“fablado” in text	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	fabulari	fablar	hablar
1st Sg	fabulor	fablo	hablo
2nd Sg	fabularis	fablas	hablas
3rd Sg	fabulatur	fabla	habla
1st Pl	fabulamur	fablamos	hablamos
2nd Pl	fabulamini	fablais	habláis
3rd Pl	fabulantur	fablan	hablan

The change from fabulari to hablar is particularly interesting, as it can be assumed that it happened entirely due to analogy. The Latin verb fabulari is irregular in the sense that the present indicative form conjugates according to the rules of the present passive, but the Modern Spanish verb hablar conjugates normally for an -ar verb (-o, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, -an). The root changes as well, with word intial voiceless labiodental fricative [f] becoming voiceless glottal fricative [h] and later disappearing entirely from pronunciation. Lenition of the unstressed high back [u] occurs from Latin to Old Spanish. The Old Spanish “fablado” is in the past preterite form, and comes from the Latin word “fabulatum.” It becomes “hablado” in Modern Spanish. The root word goes through the same processes as above, but the ending, “-ado” evolves separately from “-atum.” First, the word final /m/ is lost, creating /fablatu/. Then, the word final /u/ follows regular vowel evolution to /o/, creating /fablato/. Finally, in the unprotected intervocalic position, voiceless alveolar stop /t/ strengthens to voiced alveolar stop /d/, yielding the Old Spanish “fablado.” Then, the root continues evolution to “hablado” in Modern Spanish.

 

	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	trahere	traer	traer
1st Sg	traho	trayo	traigo
2nd Sg	trahis	traes	traes
3rd Sg	trahit	trae	trae
1st Pl	trahimus	traemos	traemos
2nd Pl	trahitis	traeis	traéis
3rd Pl	trahunt	traen	traen

Trahere is a class III verb in Latin, so it shifts to a class II verb in Spanish (-er ending). This makes sense, because the infinitive form ends in -ere. In the infinitive form, the word final “-e” is dropped from the word. Intervocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h] goes through a process of total lenition. The ending “-mus” follows normal vowel evolution, with the unstressed vowel high back [u] becoming mid-high back [o]. Word final voiceless alveolar stop [t] goes through total lenition in both the 3rd person singular and plural forms as well. In the 2nd person plural, intervocalic [t] goes through total lenition as well. This leaves the infinitive form [traer], 2nd person singular [traes], 3rd person singular [trae], 1st person plural [traemos], 2nd person plural [traeis], and 3rd person plural [traen]. The first person singular form does not follow the same allomorphy pattern as the rest: in this instance, the [h] becomes a yod, voiced palatal approximant [j], which later velarizes from [trajo] to [traiɣo].

 

	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	tenere	tener	tener
1st Sg	teneo	tengo	tengo
2nd Sg	tenes	tienes	tienes
3rd Sg	tenet	tiene	tiene
1st Pl	tenemus	tenemos	tenemos
2nd Pl	tenetis	teneis	tenéis
3rd Pl	tenent	tienen	tienen

The change from tenere to tener is one of the best examples of the combined boot format for allomorphy patterns, with the 1st singular form following a different rule from the 2nd singular, 3rd singular, and 3rd plural forms, and the 1st and 2nd plural forms following another form entirely. In the infinitive form, the word final “-e” is dropped from the word. In the infinitive form, the stress is on the final syllable, “-er”, but in the conjugations, the stressed syllable is on the penultimate syllable. In the 1st singular form, the voiced alveolar nasal [n] velarizes to [ŋg], yielding [teŋgo]. The now unstressed mid-high mid-front [e] is dropped from the conjugation. In the 2nd and 3rd singular and 3rd plural forms, the now stressed vowel [e] diphthongizes to [ie]. The word final voiceless alveolar stop [t] goes through total lenition in both 3rd person forms. In the 2nd person plural, intervocalic [t] goes through total lenition as well. The 1st person ending “-emus” becomes “-emos” with the evolution of high back [u] to mid-high back [o].

 

	Latin	Old Spanish	Modern Spanish
Infinitive	nasci	nascer	nacer
1st Sg	nascor	nasco	nazco
2nd Sg	nasceris	nasces	naces
3rd Sg	nascitur	nasce	nace
1st Pl	nascimur	nascemos	nacemos
2nd Pl	nascimini	nasceis	nacéis
3rd Pl	nascintur	nascen	nacen

The change from nasci to nacer is another word where it can be assumed that it happened entirely due to analogy. The Latin verb nasci is irregular in the sense that the present indicative form conjugates according to the rules of the present passive, but the Modern Spanish verb nacer conjugates according to the same rules as other -er verbs. In the infinitive form, the word final “-e” is dropped from the word. The consonant cluster of voiceless alveolar fricative [s] and voiced velar stop [k], [sk], simplifies to [s], grapheme <c> (excepting the 1st singular form) after the Old Spanish. This leaves the infinitive form [naser], 2nd person singular [nases], 3rd person singular [nase], 1st person plural [nasemos], 2nd person plural [naseis], and 3rd person plural [nasen]. In the 1st person singular conjugation, the consonant [s] in the cluster [sk] becomes voiced alveolar fricative [z], creating the cluster [zk] and creating the word [nazko] or <nasco>.

 

Noun and Adjective Morphology

illos → ellos → ellos
Phrase: Antes que ellos legen a laño
Modern Translation: Antes que (ellos) lleguen al llano
English Translation: Before they reach the plain

The Old Spanish “ellos” /ejos/ comes from the Latin “illos” /ilos/. Word initial /i/ goes through regular vowel evolution, to become /e/, creating /elos/. Then, the “ll” /l/ palatalizes to “ll” /j/, creating “ellos” /ejos/. This remains through to modern Spanish. The Latin word “illos” is the masculine accusative plural form of “ille,” meaning “that” and later “he.” The word is now used as a pronoun to refer to groups of men or masculine nouns, or to people or nouns of mixed gender. In modern Spanish, the word “ellos” can be included before a verb or not, as the case endings show the subject.

 

caballus → cavallos → caballos
Phrase: sedien sobre los cavallos
Modern Translation: montados en sus caballos
English Translation: they were seated on their horses

The Latin word for horse is more commonly “equus.” However, in poetry and in vulgar Latin “caballus” was used. “Caballus” /cabalus/ is the masculine second declension singular nominative form of the noun. The word final /s/ was dropped, creating /cabalu/. The word final vowel /u/ then evolved to /o/, creating “caballo” /cabalo/. The “ll” /l/ went through a process of palatalization, creating “ll” /j/ and the word “caballo” /cabajo/. It is likely that the Old Spanish “cavallo” was pronounced the same way, and the grapheme “b” was exchanged for “v” due to the similarities between the phonemes. This change did not last through to modern Spanish. The final “s” in the plural form, “caballos” /cabajos/ is the standard pluralization in Spanish.

 

comitem → conde → conde
Phrase: al conde don Remont
Modern Translation: al conde don Remont
English Translation: Count don Remont

The Latin “comitem” /comitem/ was a third declension masculine or feminine noun, in the accusative singular form. The word final /m/ and the unstressed vowel /i/ were deleted, creating “comte” /comte/. The bilabial nasal /m/ shifted to become alveolar nasal /n/, and the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ became voiced alvelar stop /d/, creating the consonant cluster /nd/ and the word “conde” /conde/. In modern Spanish, the masculine form of the word is “conde” while the feminine form is “condesa.”

 

totum → todom → todo
Phrase: todom lo pechara
Modern Translation: todo me lo pagara
English Translation: he will pay me for all of them

The Latin word “totum” /totum/ is a third declension adjective in the accusative singular form. The word final /u/ went through normal vowel evolution to /o/, creating “totom” /totom/. Then, the intervocalic voiceless alveolar stop /t/ strengthened to the voiced alveolar stop /d/ creating the Old Spanish “todom” /todom/. In modern Spanish, the word final /m/ was lost, yielding “todo” /todo/. The feminine form of the adjective is “toda” /toda/ and the plural forms are “todos” and “todas.”

 

localem → logar → lugar
Phrase: Qui en un logar mora siempre
Modern Translation: Quien en un lugar mora siempre
English Translation: He who stays in one place always

The Latin word “localem” is a third declension masculine noun in the accusative singular form. First, the “-em” ending was deleted, yielding “local” /lokal/. In the word final position, liquid sound /l/ deassimilated and became liquid sound /r/, creating “locar” /lokar/. Then, voiceless velar stop /k/ strengthened to voiced velar stop /g/, yielding “logar” /logar/. Each of these forms can be seen in Old Spanish. Finally, the stressed vowel /o/ evolved to /ue/, yielding “luegar” /luwegar/ before simplifying to /u/, creating modern Spanish “lugar” /lugar/.

portus → puerto → puerto
Phrase: al puerto de alucant
Modern Translation: al puerto de Alucat
English Translation: the port of Olocau

The Latin word “portus” /portus/ is a fourth declension masculine noun in the nominative singular form. This is interesting, as Spanish usually evolves from the accusative form of the noun. The fourth declension likely assimilated with the second declension during the simplification process, but the nominative and accusative forms would be the same for this word either way. The word final /s/ is deleted, creating “portu” /portu/, and then the word final /u/ goes through vowel evolution and becomes /o/, creating “porto” /porto/. The stressed vowel /o/ in the penultimate syllable diphthongizes to “ue” /we/, yielding “puerto” /pwerto/.

The feminine noun “puerta,” meaning “door,” is very similar. However, it comes from the first declension Latin word “porta,” with the same meaning. So, despite their similarities, they are entirely different words with different etymologies.

 

Works Cited

Online Etymological Dictionary of Spanish. https://www.spanishetym.com/

Wiktionary. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Main_Page

Explanation of Grapheme Pronunciation

Grapheme	Phoneme	Explanation
<u>, <v>	/u/, /v/ ([β]) (used interchangeably)	The graphemes <u> and <v> in Latin are used relatively similarly, and this trend continued in Old Spanish. The allophone [β] was beginning to be used in place of /v/, and this occurs in some instances (usually intervocalically).
<b>	/b/,  [β]	The allophone [β] was beginning to be used in place of /b/, and this occurs in some instances (usually intervocalically).
<xp>	/kr/	The word <xpistianos> was pronounced [kristianos]. This seems to be the only instance of this spelling, and it’s unclear why the spelling changed as the word was <christianus> in Latin and <cristianos> in Modern Spanish.
<y>	/j/, /i/	The grapheme <y> usually represents the phoneme /j/, however in certain cases it stands as a replacement for <i> /i/.
<ç>	/ts/	The grapheme <ç> represents /ts/, which later became /θ/ or /s/
<qu>	/kw/	The Old Spanish <qu> is still pronounced like the Latin. In Modern Spanish, most of these words are either spelled <cu> or pronounced /k/
<i>	/i/, /j/	Usually, <i> is pronounced /i/, but in certain cases it is pronounced as the yod /j/.
<ue>	/we/	The diphthong <ue> is pronounced /we/.
<ui>, <uy>	/wi/	The diphthong <ui> or <uy> is pronounced /wi/ (like in Latin)
<ll>	/ʎ/	The grapheme <ll> in Old Spanish is pronounced /ʎ/, then becomes /j/ in Modern Spanish.
<ge>, <x>	/ʒ/	The graphemes <ge> and <x> are both pronounced /ʒ/, before they become /h/ in Modern Spanish.
<z>	/s/	The grapheme <z> is pronounced /s/ in Old Spanish.
<h>	/h/	The grapheme <h> was still pronounced /h/. In Modern Spanish, the grapheme <h> is silent.