Introduction

The Cantar de mio Cid is a the oldest surviving work of Spanish literature. It is an epic poem believed to have been composed between 1140 and 1207. The surviving manuscript is located in the Biblioteca Nacional de España, and can be viewed through their online database. This copy is tentatively dated between 1301 and 1400 by the Biblioteca Nacional, although other sources date it later in the 14th century. It is likely a copy of the original manuscript from 1140-1207. The authorship is up for debate, as is the question of whether or not the work was originally part of the oral tradition. The surviving manuscript, known as the Poema del Cid, is attributed to Per Abbat. Though some believe Per Abbat to be the original author of the piece, others think he was simply the scribe to copy the poem, either in 1207 or in the 13th-14th centuries. If Per Abbat was a scribe, he may have either copied the poem from the oral tradition or from yet another lost manuscript.

The question of Per Abbat’s role in the making of the Cantar de Mio Cid and the remaining copy of the Poema del Cid is perhaps the most discussed topic among scholars of the Cantar de Mio Cid. Menéndez Pidal, who studied and transcribed the Poema del Cid manuscript in the 19th century, was of the belief that it was part of the oral tradition. Many more recent translations of the Cantar de Mio Cid are reliant on his copy, as the Poema del Cid manuscript has since been damaged, rendering certain sections unreadable and forcing modern scholars to reference Pidal’s work.

The Cantar de Mio Cid is based on the life of Rodrigo (Ruy) Díaz de Vivar, more commonly known as El Cid or sometimes El Campeador. He was born circa 1043 and died in 1099. He was a Castilian military leader and part of the noble class. He was promoted by Sancho II to standard-bearer at the age of 22, indicating that he likely had a successful military career from a young age. El Cid participated in Sancho II’s successful campaigns against his brother, Alfonso VI. When Sancho II was killed, he left no heirs, leaving Alfonso VI as the successor to the throne. Despite this, El Cid was allowed to remain at court and even married Alfonso VI’s niece, Jimena. They had a son and two daughters.

In terms of the more general history at the time, it is important to consider that Spain as we know it today did not exist. Instead, it was divided between a number of kingdoms, which could be generalized into two categories: the Christian kingdoms in the north, and the Muslim taifas in the south. These taifas were the product of a fractured state following the death of Abd al-Raḥmān Sanchuelo in 1009. This lack of unity in Al-Andalus allowed the Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian peninsula to expand and impose taxes on the areas they invaded, causing more unrest in Al-Andalus between the people and the local leaders. This laid the framework for the eventual Castilian occupation of Toledo in 1085, and the subsequent invasion of the North African Almoravids, who systematically worked to eliminate the taifas in an attempt to save Spanish Islam. This was fairly successful, except in the case of Valencia, which was able to hold out under the command of El Cid.

This time was known as the Reconquista, a campaign by Christian kingdoms to reconquer the territory occupied and controlled by Muslims. This went on for a number of centuries, but during the time of El Cid, the Reconquista was going very well for the Christians. Were it not for a break between the kingdoms of Castile and Leon in the 10th century, it is quite possible that the Reconquista may have ended much sooner.

Ferdinand I of Castile united the kingdoms of Castile and León, and also began to exert control over the taifas, who were unable to cooperate with each other in order to avoid the influence of the Catholic kingdoms, now united under Ferdinand I. On his death, he once again divided the kingdoms among his sons, giving Castile and the tributes of Zaragoza to his oldest son, Sancho II, giving León and the tributes of Toledo to his second son, Alfonso VI, and giving Galicia, the district of Portugal, and the tributes of Badajoz and Sevilla to his youngest son, García. This went against all precedent established by previous rulers of León, and his son Sancho II felt slighted by this. He thought that the kingdoms should remain united, and set out to reestablish the unity achieved by his father.

Sancho II was able to defeat Alfonso VI, but was unable to gain any territory after the victory. He was more successful in his attempt to depose his brother García, who was forced to flee to Sevilla. Following this, he had a more successful attack on Alfonso VI, who was forced to flee to Toledo. Sancho II was assassinated soon after his success in taking over León, possibly as part of a plot between his sister and Alfonso VI. Whether or not he was actually involved in the assassination plot, Alfonso VI certainly benefited from his brother’s death, as he became the next heir to both Castile and León. He also gained control of the lands given to García, who was imprisoned by Alfonso VI upon his return from Sevilla. El Cid, as the former leader of Sancho II’s forces, did not trust Alfonso VI and popular legend states that El Cid required Alfonso VI to swear an oath of purgation to prove his innocence in the assassination before accepting him as king. El Cid, despite being admitted to the court, never had a close relationship with Alfonso VI.

Alfonso VI began by imposing tributes on the taifas, but quickly escalated his efforts to the point of conquest over them. The subjects of the taifas became increasingly hostile toward their local kings, and eventually brought about their downfalls, which only served to complicate things for Alfonso VI. Valencia declared independence, Sevilla took over Cordoba and began looking to extend power elsewhere, and Alfonso VI’s relationship with Toledo became increasingly strained despite having had close ties, with them previously giving him sanctuary after his deposition by Sancho II.

Al-Qadir, the grandson of al-Mamun, the Toledan leader who granted sanctuary to Alfonso VI, was forced to flee Toledo and went to seek refuge with Alfonso VI. Alfonso VI agreed to reinstate al-Qadir to power, so long as he agreed to eventually leave Toledo and instead move to Valencia, where he would be given leadership with the help of Alfonso VI’s armies if necessary. Soon after, he exiled El Cid, influenced by others within the court and perhaps fearing what El Cid could be capable of. This is where the Cantar de Mio Cid begins, with El Cid leaving his home and beginning his journey in exile to Zaragoza and eventually Valencia. El Cid was successful in defending Zaragoza from invading forces, possibly believing it to be in the best interests of Alfonso VI, who was still theoretically collecting tribute.

Alfonso VI eventually sieged Toledo at the request of al-Qadir, whose power was becoming increasingly unstable. The city surrendered, and the remaining cities of Sevilla, Granada, and Badajoz, who were still against Alfonso VI grew concerned. They sent for help from the Almoravids in North Africa when they realized that they would be unable to defeat Alfonso VI alone. The Almoravids responded, and won a decisive victory over Alfonso VI’s forces before retreating back home.

El Cid, now readmitted to Alfonso VI’s service, was authorized to conquer whatever lands he was able to hold in the East. He went to Valencia, and became the protector of al-Qadir. When the people of Valencia rebelled and killed al-Qadir, El Cid implemented himself as ruler and maintained strict control over the city of Valencia and the surrounding areas. When the Almoravids came back, intending to conquer the remaining taifas, Valencia, under the command of El Cid, was the first city able to hold a defence against them. He remained in charge of the city until his death, upon which his wife, Jimena, and her son-in-law maintained lordship over Valencia. They abandoned the city by order of Alfonso VI after the Almoravids besieged the city in 1101.

Though it does have some basis in fact, and maintains an air of realism not present in many other examples of epic poetry, the Cantar de Mio Cid does not correspond exactly to the life of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar. Because he was quickly adopted as a national hero of Castile, the facts of his life were quickly turned into legend, a phenomenon helped along by the Cantar de Mio Cid. The poem starts when he is exiled, and continues through the later part of his life. The main departure from fact has to do with a secondary storyline emerging after the seeming resolution when Alfonso VI pardons El Cid. Two young men from the court of Alfonso VI (los infantes) use their standing in the court to become engaged to El Cid’s daughters in the hopes that it will make them wealthy. There is no historical precedence for these events, and the inclusion of the infantes as, perhaps, the primary antagonists is certainly interesting. It takes the focus of the Cantar de Mio Cid and centers it on the conflict between El Cid, seen as the brave and loyal hero, and the infantes, the self-serving and manipulative villains, turning the epic into a tale of morality and honor rather than one of pure history.

There were many languages spoken in the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the Cantar de Mio Cid. Most were descended from Latin through the Visigoths, the last people under whom the Iberian peninsula was unified. However, there was also substantial Arabic influence, especially in the south. Many different versions of “Hispano-Romance” showed up after the fall of the Visigoths, mainly spoken in northern Spain with divides mostly following political boundaries. This range of languages came to include Galician, Leonese, Castilian, Navarro-Aragonese, and Catalan. As these languages grew, they mostly replaced various dialects of Mozarabic, largely spoken in the south. The northern dialects, with more social prestige than Mozarabic and the force of the Reconquista behind them, quickly spread through to the south. Castilian eventually became the most widely spoken, given the importance of Castile during the Reconquista, though Mozarabic has left its influence on the language. The Cantar de Mio Cid is written in Old Spanish, a version of the Castilian that emerged throughout much of the Iberian peninsula and evolved into Modern Spanish.

Works Cited

Harris, Martin. “The Romance Languages,” The Romance Languages. Oxford University Press, 1988. https://moodle.mtholyoke.edu/pluginfile.php/560717/mod_label/intro/Harris.pdf

“Introduction,” Cantar de Mio Cid, https://miocid.wlu.edu/main/?v=eng

“Muslim Spain,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Muslim-Spain#ref70374

O’Callaghan, Joseph F. “Alfonso VI, the Taifas, and the Almoravids,” A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press, 1975. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/ j.ctt5hh0cv.14?refreqid=excelsior%3Aefea946a867466492e2e73a3ab76bb2d&seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents

Poema del Cid. Biblioteca Digital Hispanica, http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000036451

“Presentación del Cantar de Mio Cid,” Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/cantar_de_mio_cid/presentacion/

“Reconquista,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Reconquista

“El Cid,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/El-Cid-Castilian-military-leader

Smith, Colin. “Per Abbat and the ‘Poema de mio Cid,’” JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43627834.pdf

Smith, Colin. The Making of the Poema de Mio Cid. Cambridge University Press, 1983.

“The Almoravids,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/The-Almoravids